Renner's objections came in too late and carried too little weight to have effect. [76], The British had been quietly arming gendarmes, the so-called B-Gendarmerie, since 1945 and discussed the creation of a proper Austrian military in 1947. [21] On 27 June 1946, they amalgamated these assets into the USIA, a conglomerate of over 400 enterprises. [23] They responded with massive and coordinated expropriation of Austrian economic assets. There was new agreement on the difficult questions of German property in Austria and on Austrian reimbursements in connection with the Danube Navigation Company (DDSG) and Soviet oil interests. Cf. Lewis 2000, pp. Berg 2000, pp. [35] This competitive advantage helped to keep USIA enterprises afloat despite their mounting obsolescence. The intimate Diary of an Ausrian Interpreter at Moscow Treaty Talks... New perspectives on Austrians and World War II, Kak byl dostignut proryv v avsriyskom voprose (Как был достигнут прорыв в австрийском вопросе), Austria, Germany, and the Cold War: from the Anschluss to the State Treaty 1938–1955, South Tyrol. Oliver Rathkolb, "Historische Fragmente und die "unendliche Geschichte" von den sowjetischen Absichten in Österreich". There is, however, no reason to believe that she has prepared to abandon Austria completely. As well, all administrative and legal measures since 1938 would be ignored. Chances of a Russian invasion of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia appear fairly remote. There the matter remained until Stalin’s death in March 1953. [39] The decision was arguably motivated by the British desire to reward Italy, a country far more important for the containment of world communism. In the immediate aftermath of World War II, Austria was divided into four occupation zones and jointly occupied by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France. Deborah Welch Larson, "Crisis Prevention and the Austrian State Treaty". For a review of evolution of Austrian Social Partnership see Bischof et al. [89], The end of the Korean War and the death of Joseph Stalin defused the standoff, and the country was rapidly, but not completely, demilitarized. South Tyrol was returned to Italy. Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics. Listen and subscribe wherever you get your Wilfried Aichinger, Sowjetische Österreichpolitik 1943-45 (=Materialien zur Zeitgeschichte 1, Wien 1977). Piotr Krupiński calls for more voices to be heard. Eisterer 2009, p. 201: 2 to 2.5 billion U. S. dollars. Published 24 May 2007 This page was last edited on 31 March 2021, at 02:02. Cf. The first prong began with a diversionary attack by the Ninth Army on the 31stof January. In: Mitteilungen des Österreichischen Staatsarchivs 50 (2003) 133-156. Cf. Do texts and images help? Eisterer 2009, p. 202: UK – single battalion, France – 400 men in Vienna and "a few officers and gendarmes" in Tyrol. [2] On 3 April, at the beginning of the Vienna Offensive, the Austrian politician Karl Renner, then living in southern Lower Austria, established contact with the Soviets. Historians have written about sexual violence committed by the armies of the Western Allies and the Red Army as these forces fought their way into the Third Reich and during the period of occupation. The periodical publication of the Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS) series on 1945/46 and subsequent years since the late 1960s tended to create a clear predominance of American viewpoints. What began in the Soviet Union as an occasion for military propaganda gradually became a national holiday to honour veterans of the ‘Great Patriotic War’. Original in English Alfred Ableitinger/Siegfried Beer/Eduard G. Staudinger (Wien 1998). Moscow agreed that Austria would be free no later than 31 December. Secondly, it may be due to the hope that a withdrawal of all Allied forces would offer a better chance of exerting pressure on Austria, both externally and internally, especially after the successful Communist coups in Hungary and Czechoslovakia. USIA was facing bankruptcy and the cost of occupation to the tune of 36 million Austrian shillings annually since 1953 may have made the leaving easier. [7] But Renner had secured inter-party control by designating two Under-Secretaries of State in each of the ministries, appointed by the two parties not designating the Secretary of State. The Soviet leadership agreed in 1941 upon the restoration of Austria as an independent state within pre-1938 boundaries, separate from Germany and free of any confederated bonds, for example with Bavaria or Hungary, as envisioned by Winston Churchill. Klaus Eisterer, Französische Besatzungspolitik. Soviet troops. Taken together with successful Austrian resistance to Russian pressure over the past year and the increasing support of the Western Powers, it must have brought home to the Soviet leaders the possibility of a postponement of their plans to absorb Austria and must consequently have increased the urgency of devising new tactics to overcome Western pressure. [84] Gendarmes were trained primarily as an anti-coup police force, but they also studied Soviet combat practice and counted on cooperation with the Yugoslavs in case of a Soviet invasion. Austrian diplomats seized on the opportunity to build alliances with Western governments, and the ground was prepared for Austria’s reintegration into western Europe. [20], On 9 July 1945 the Allies agreed on the borders of their occupation zones. Bader, p. 160, uses 1937 as the base year (100%). Tirol und Vorarlberg 1945/46 (Innsbruck 1991); Die britische Steiermark 1945-1955, ed. These were, in chronological order of publication: Österreich und die Sieger, ed. According to Sergeev, who was present at the negotiations, Molotov's phrase about the, List of administrators of Allied-occupied Austria, The Marshall Plan summer: an eyewitness report on Europe and the Russians in 1947, Austro-Corporatism: Past, Present, Future, Sowjetische Politik in Österreich 1945–1955: Einleitung zu den Dokumenten, The Churchill-Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953–1955, Waltzing into the Cold War: the struggle for occupied Austria. Russian Poland, the westernmost part of the Russian Empire, was a thick tongue of land enclosed to the north by East Prussia, to the west by German Poland (Poznania) and by Silesia, and to the south by Austrian Poland ( Galicia ). [18], American troops, including the 11th Armored Division, crossed the Austrian border on 26 April, followed by French and British troops on 29 April and on 8 May, respectively. Is our gaze yet another tool of oppression? [70], According to Bischof, "no European nation benefited more from the Marshall Plan than Austria. 1996. Even the RAND Corporation, which has been particularly hawkish, suggests that a Russian … [86] The communists stormed and took over ÖGB offices and disrupted railroad traffic but failed to recruit sufficient public support and had to admit defeat. Clark insisted that before their departure the United States must secretly train and arm the core of a future military. [87] The Soviets and the Western allies did not dare to actively intervene in the strikes. In: Austria in the Nineteen Fifties (=Contemporary Austrian Studies 3, 1994) 39-78; and Gerald Stourzh, "The Austrian State Treaty and the International Decision Making Process in 1955". Eurozine, The new Eurozine anthology on 1989 and the thirty years since. Austria is also of importance to the Soviet Government as a “western-minded” country in which their victory has given them a military footing, and as a potentially valuable channel for their political infiltration of Western Europe. By 1948, the Western Powers broke off treaty discussions due to events in Budapest and Prague, as well as continued Yugoslav territorial claims on Austria’s southern border. Can we find words for injury that do not wound the injured? Guenter Bischof, Austria in the First Cold War, 1945-1955. Cf. 1: Sicherheitspolitische Aspekte der amerikanischen Besatzung in Oberösterreich-Süd 1945-1950 (Linz 1995). 2: Dokumente, ed. For the Soviets, Austria had become an economic and political liability. 161–162, reviews the studies and sources on alcoholism in Soviet troops. In 1943 however, the Allies agreed in the Declaration of Moscow that Austria would instead be regarded as the first victim of Nazi … The government and the unions deadlocked in negotiations, and gave the communists the opportunity to organize the 1950 Austrian general strikes which became the gravest threat since the 1947 food riots. All that can be said is that she appears to have recognised the limits which existing conditions in Austria impose on the extension of her influence, and consequently to be willing, if not anxious, to avail herself of the advantages which she may gain under a peace treaty. The Soviet Union has so far refrained from action that would precipitate the partition of Austria on the German model, and such a contingency would probably only be of value to her from the purely military point of view, i.e., if war seemed imminent. At this time (August 1946) the Soviet Military Bank (SMB) was created, which was to handle all the financial transactions of the USIA.24 By 1953, the value of these USIA firms had dropped dramatically due to lack of investment and general neglect. [69] But ultimately they were responsible for the creation of the vast monopolistic public sector of the economy (and thus politically benefiting the Socialists). We are using cookies to help us give you a better experience. Movement of occupation troops ("zone swap") continued until the end of July. The Allied occupation of Austria started on 27 April 1945 as a result of the Vienna Offensive and ended with the Austrian State Treaty on 27 July 1955. She realises, however, that in present circumstances her chances of achieving this are slight. Albert Resis (Chicago 1993) 10. Their possession of the Zistersdorf oilfields has furthermore been used as a basis for forming a corps of factory guards (Werkschutz) some thousands strong and efficiently armed, which may well prove a source of danger, whether before or after the end of the occupation, particularly whilst the equipment of the Austrian Gendarmerie is inadequate and until an Austrian Army has been formed, armed and trained. Gerald Stourzh, Kleine Geschichte des Österreichischen Staatsvertrages (Graz 1975) and Manfried Rauchensteiner, Der Sonderfall: Die Besatzungszeit in Österreich 1945 bis 1955 (Graz 1979). The annexed excerpt from one of these impressive estimates by the British Joint Intelligence Committee from the summer of 1948 bears witness to this type of sagacity. In 1946, when Washington urged the commencement of such Allied negotiations, foreign minister Molotov was in no hurry whatsoever. The Soviets left in Vienna the large Soviet War Memorial and to the new government a symbolic cache of small arms, artillery, and T-34 tanks; the Americans left a far greater gift of "Stockpile A" assets. Yet Stalin hesitated to give up Soviet military presence in eastern Austria, and the talks stalled again, this time for an extended two-year period, characterised by Cold War tensions in Korea. [91] Raab carefully probed the Soviets about resuming the talks on independence,[92] but until February 1955 it remained contingent on a solution to the larger German problem. Festschrift Alfred Ableitinger, ed. Figl's government, the Chambers of Labor, Trade and Agriculture, and the Austrian Trade Union Federation (ÖGB) temporarily resolved the crisis in favor of tight regulation of food and labor markets. A: appealing to the League of Nations B: demanding Germany immediately withdraw from Austria C: stationing troops in Czechoslovakia along its border with Austria D: taking no action [73] In 1948–1949 Marshall Plan aid contributed 14% of national income, the highest ratio of all involved countries. What was missing until recently were the archives of the Soviet Element of the Allied Commission for Austria (SCSK) and the documentation for most of the Soviet military units and commands stationed in Austria from 1945 to 1955. [80] The B-Gendarmerie knowingly hired Wehrmacht veterans and VdU members;[81] the denazification of Austria's 537,000 registered Nazis had largely ended in 1948. Joseph Stalin had already established a would-be future Austrian cabinet from the country's communists in exile, but Tolbukhin's telegram changed Stalin's mind in favor of Renner. In: Zeitgeschichte 28/2 (2001) 114-129. [12] Red Army morale fell as soldiers prepared to be sent home; replacement of combat units with Ivan Konev's permanent occupation force only marginally reduced 'misbehaviour'. [19][2] Until the end of July 1945 none of the Western allies had first-hand intelligence from Eastern Austria (likewise, Renner's cabinet knew practically nothing about conditions in the West). This resulted in the Battle of Bolimov, a confrontation most notable for being one of the first where poison gas was used on the battlefield. In early 1938, Austrian Nazis conspired for … "[71] Austria received nearly $1 billion through the Marshall Plan, and half a billion in humanitarian aid. The invasion of Poland in 1939 should be seen as two acts of aggression instead of one: Nazi Germany’s invasion from the west on 1 September, and the Soviet Union’s invasion from the east on 17 September. Despite these longstanding archival difficulties, a solid monographic study of Soviet policy towards and in Austria was published as early as 1977; it argued against the theory of intentional Sovietization of Austria and has remained a classic ever since.10 It was followed by an equally path-breaking inquiry into the economic interests of the Soviets in Austria concentrated in the Soviet holding company USIA, based mainly on Austrian documentation, which gave emphasis to Soviet economic exploitation, irrespective of possible political destabilisation motives.11 The Viennese scholar Oliver Rathkolb provided early and important insights into the structure and strategy behind the Soviet propaganda machinery in Austria, deduced indirectly through a study of US cultural policy in the early years of the American occupation of Austria.12 Further areas of research on Soviet policies pertained to the question of Austrian POWs in the Soviet Gulags, on gender problems and relations in the zone, particularly on the issue of rape, and on everyday life during the Soviet occupation.13 By the late 1990s, several younger historians began enquiring into the structure, function, and perspective of Soviet policies in Austria, both from the external viewpoint of Austria’s place in the international affairs of the Cold War and from the internal viewpoint of political, administrative, economical, and cultural engagement.14. "[38] The economy of the Soviet zone eventually reunited with the rest of the country. [7] American High Commissioner Mark W. Clark vocally resisted Soviet expansionist intentions, and his reports to Washington, along with George F. Kennan's The Long Telegram, supported Truman's tough stance against the Soviets. Khrushchev chose Austria as a showcase for his new, more flexible policy of “peaceful coexistence”, thereby forcing President Eisenhower to adjust his strategy and agree to meet the new Kremlin master for summit diplomacy in Geneva.31 The neutralisation of Austria also stopped the latent impetus for Austrian integration into western Europe and at the same time drove a wedge between the northern and Mediterranean flanks of NATO. The second stage of the Marshall Plan, which began in 1950, concentrated on productivity of the economy. First published by Akadeemia 1/2006 (Estonian version), Contributed by Akadeemia [82], Austrian communists appealed to Stalin to partition their country along the German model, but in February 1948 Andrei Zhdanov vetoed the idea:[3] Austria had more value as a bargaining chip than as another unstable client state. From now on its decision could be overturned only by unanimous vote by all four Allies. Approximately 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops attacked Czechoslovakia that night, with Romania and Albania refusing to participate. This recently published book compares the various aspects – political, military, economic – of Soviet occupation in three key countries of the … (2005, in German). [45] Heating depended on supplies of German coal shipped by the U.S. on lax credit terms. The struggle for succession seemed to open new perspectives and certainly brought significant alleviations in the Soviet occupation regime, leading to a sizeable release of Austrian POWs and to Soviet willingness to pay for its own occupation costs. [56] The Austrian government regarded financial aid to the Soviet zone as a lifeline holding the country together. The Allied occupation of Austria started on 27 April 1945 as a result of the Vienna Offensive and ended with the Austrian State Treaty on 27 July 1955. The coalition of ÖVP and SPÖ has been since known as the. [3], On 20 April 1945, the Soviets, without asking their Western allies,[4] instructed Renner to form a provisional government. In: Austrian History Yearbook XXVI (1995) 99-127. [34] The USIA was weakly integrated with the rest of the Austrian economy; its products were primarily shipped to the East, its profits de facto confiscated and its taxes left unpaid by the Soviets. For the physically disabled, curiosity and passing glances can seem to stigmatize and mark out. Soviet and American forces occupied Austria … In 1943 however, the Allies agreed in the Declaration of Moscow that Austria would instead be regarded as the first victim of Nazi aggression, and treated as a liberated and independent country after the war. This accounted for less than 10% of the Austrian workforce at the peak in 1951, and less than 5% of the Austrian … [49] Unlike earlier protests, the demonstrators, led by the Communists, called to curb the westernisation of Austrian politics. However, the first free national elections of 25 November 1945 proved the political weakness of the KPÖ, which managed to draw no more than a meagre 5.42 per cent of the vote. The Allied Council of four military governors[22] convened for its first meeting in Vienna on 12 September 1945. The Korean War experience persuaded Washington that Austria might become "Europe's Korea"[79] and sped up rearmament of the "secret ally". During the 1990s, there was a concerted effort by practically all Austrian specialists working in the field to gain access to the relevant archives in Russia. Klambauer, "Die USIA-Betriebe", 291-296. Vienna was similarly subdivided but the central district was collectively administered by the Allied Control Council. [94], In January 1955, Soviet diplomats Andrey Gromyko, Vladimir Semenov and Georgy Pushkin secretly advised Vyacheslav Molotov to unlink the Austrian and German issues, expecting that the new talks on Austria would delay ratification of the Paris Agreement. This new documentation has inspired new analytical approaches and fascinating interpretative contributions.18. There is no doubt that Moscow wanted to utilize the military advantage it had gained in liberating the Austrian capital in April and in occupying the eastern part of Austria (containing approximately a quarter of the Austrian population). [42] Food remained the worst problem. [88] The strike intensified the militarization of Western Austria, with active input from France and the CIA. [60] In 1948–1949, a substantial share of Marshall Plan funds was used to subsidize imports of food. Cf. c. the plans for the "final solution." Wolfgang Mueller, "Soviet Plans and Policies for Austria's Transition to Socialism, 1945-1955". [21], On 28 June 1946, the Allies signed the Second Control Agreement that loosened their dominance over the Austrian government. In: Österreich unter alliierter Besatzung, 137-158. Lewis, p. 144: "962 million dollars in Marshall Aid". Befriend the Russians. 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